Cars and Bikes Essay

Cars and Bikes Bikes and cars are two of the many ways of transportation. Both can be used to drive people to places they want to go to without walking. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. And each has its own type and standard of people as well as its different uses and forms. Not all the people could afford buying a car. A car could be very expensive to some people. For example, we often see poor people riding bicycles in the middle of the streets. For those people, bikes are their only way of transportation to their work, to the market, to schools, to anywhere they want to get to as long as it’s not too far away. Bikes are also used by kids to play and have fun with their friends in the club or something like that. Poor people cannot be found driving a car, because bikes are way cheaper to them and are something they can hardly afford to get. Cars are used to travel to different places and cities, which means that they’re good for long distances because they’re faster and safer than bikes. Cars work with motors that make them easy to drive, and long distances would not be a problem to the driver because he doesn’t put so much effort to make the car move. However, a bike is mostly moved by all the efforts the rider can put. No motor or anything, but it’s all by moving the rider’s leg, and it’s so slow that it can never be used for long distances. Moreover, bikes are so dangerous compared to cars. Passengers in a car are more protected against accidents or any injuries. The car includes a lot of advantages that help to protect them, like the seat belt, the air bag and the car’s roof that covers the driver and all the other passengers. While a person who rides a bike is more likely to get injured badly when he gets hit by a car, or happens to get involved in a simple accident as there’s no roof to protect him and a bike isn’t strong enough to handle any tough situation. A serious accident happening to a bike’s rider can even lead to death sometimes as the injuries may get so dangerous. Basically, as we can see there are so many things these two means of transportation differ in, but still they both serve for the same purpose. For short distances, it doesn’t really matter which mean to choose; they’d both get you to the place you want to reach. They both are fun to use. But it always depends on the people and the right usage. Finally, I totally prefer driving a car than riding a bike in general even for very short distances. Because using a car is much safer and easier and doesn’t take too much effort unlike using a bike. Though, I can’t deny that riding a bike with friends in a summer spot, on the beach or in the club could be so much fun.

Illuminating the Illusion Essay

Jay Chiat, and expert in the advertising field, looked at advertising differently than those in the advertising business today. He launched the Energizer Bunny and Apple commercials. Not only that, he started a new age of advertising during the Super Bowl. Chiat was an amazing advertiser; however, he reached a point in 1997 where he desired to leave the marketing industry. He no longer agreed with the ideals of the advertising world. In Chiat’s essay, â€Å"Illusions are Forever,† he uncovers the true ideals of the marketing industry. His essay discusses how the lies in advertising â€Å"lie in the situations, values, beliefs, and cultural norms used to sell a message.†(212) Through this essay, Chiat uses strong, vivacious words to create an image of the true face of advertising. In the same manner, he includes examples and descriptions that embellish that image and grab the attention of the reader. Amidst all of this, Chiat composes his essay in a manner that allows for a clear, insightful message to come across. Chiat is indeed bitter of advertising, but that does not affect his message. He remains conversational throughout the course of the essay. The technique that Chiat uses throughout his writing is superb, and he does an excellent job of getting his message across. Chiat uses strong, vivid word choice throughout his essay to give his readers a precise image of the schemes used by today’s advertisers. Chiat’s words â€Å"unrelenting†(213) and â€Å"24-hour-a-day drumbeat†(213) allow his readers to imagine how advertisers are constantly hammering their ideas into the heads of the viewers. Words such as â€Å"robs us†(213) allow Chiat to make the point that advertisers rob Americans of their view of life, replacing it instead with an â€Å"illusion†. Chiat also uses â€Å"seductive†(214) to give his readers a further understanding of what advertisers are seeking. Chiat is using words such as â€Å"seductive†(214) to enlighten consumers to the idea that advertisers twist their lies in a fashion that is seemingly pleasing to the eyes but is still made up of lies. Chiat’s words are critical of advertisers and how they do not truly care about their consumer. Chiat, nonetheless, does not blind his reader to the essay’s purpose by getting lost in the emotional rhetoric. Chiat’s writing is filled with informative and detailed rhetorical modes that greatly add to the impact of his argument. Unlike many writers who seem to get lost in their descriptions of a topic, Chiat includes examples, definitions and descriptions while still shining light upon the advertising backdrop. One instance of this occurs when Chiat uses the example of the wedding ring from DeBaers, Chiat uses this example to help the readers visualize how the advertisers seek to infiltrate the minds of their consumers. Following this example, Chiat then defines â€Å"unmediated†(213) as â€Å"without media†(213). Chiat defines â€Å"unmediated†(213), a word that most take lightly, in an effort to give his readers a clear understanding of the strategies used by advertisers. A few paragraphs later, Chiat proceeds to describe internet advertising. Chiat gives a clear image to his readers on how internet advertisers drag adults in with their â€Å"authoritative-looking†(213) websites. Chiat’s placement of these examples, definitions and descriptions is excellent. He places them in positions that not only increase the flow of the writing but also pique the interests of his readers. Adding the rhetorical modes previously mentioned is very important for writers such as Chiat because there are points in writing where the pace of the writing dies down. Chiat places these modes in marvelous positions that keep up the pace of the article as it moves along. Along with descriptive words and examples, organization of ideas is also critical when writing an essay, and Chiat’s layout of paragraphs is very logical, and in turn deductive, in other words, the reasoning follows the thesis. Chiat opens up his essay with a bit of background on advertising in order to strengthen the thesis that follows. His thesis is clear and to the point. Because his thesis is mentioned in the beginning of the essay, and the reasoning behind his essay follows in each of the body paragraphs, Chiat’s essay follows this deductive style. Chiat then uses this combination to capture the reader’s attention and make them want to read more with each following paragraph. Chiat pulls the reader along not only with his strong words but also by arranging his ideas in a fashion that allows for a constant pace. In the same manner, each of the points that Chiat makes relates back to the thesis. The readers are not led up to an  apparent climax only to find another exposition; Chiat’s points are clear and flow beautifully. He includes good transitions that allow the writing to have the feel of a constant flow and not have abrupt stops in the middle of the writing where a change in direction occurs. Chiat has a great understanding of how to organize his thoughts, and he demonstrates that in his writing. Besides simply writing in a way that is pleasing to the eyes, Chiat also keeps a good tone throughout the course of the writing. This allows him to keep his readers from turning to other writings. The tone throughout his essay is bitter, but Chiat remains conversational at the same time. The descriptions of the different advertisers are definitely negative; Chiat makes it clear that he does not agree with advertisers. In the concluding paragraph of his essay, Chiat challenges us to find our own personal truth rather than the apparitional truth presented to us by advertisers. In a similar manner, Chiat says in his final paragraph that people should ignore the vision of life offered by advertisers. Amidst all of this negativity, Chiat’s writing maintains a conversational feel. Chiat involves his readers directly by asking them questions, having them imagine images, etc†¦ Chiat may have held a bitter tone over the course of the essay, and though in many cases writers using a bitter tone in their writing drive away their readers with their immense negativity, Chiat does not overpower his readers with his negative thoughts and descriptions. In fact, Chiat’s calm yet bitter tone allows his readers to better embrace his feelings. Chiat uses strong word choice and rhetorical modes, clear organization, and an inviting tone to strengthen his essay on the schemes behind advertising. These different components throughout his essay enable his readers to gain a broad understanding of Chiat’s different poins and the lies surrounding them every day. Chiat uses his great understanding of these different devices to uphold a steady pace and a smooth flow. Chiat’s â€Å"Illusions are Forever† is a well spoken essay. It captures the interests of its readers, it is very informative, and it is a very relaxed read for a negative view of advertising.

Binge Drinking on the rise in the UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Binge Drinking on the rise in the UK - Essay Example Other bits of information are presented more somberly, such as information concerning the amount of alcohol in a standard drink and how fast the body metabolizes alcohol. The source achieves these objectives by providing the information Dr. Hanson has collected from studies over the past forty years. The sections are arranged in a format familiar to young people. Question and answer sessions that are devoid of preaching but flush with scientific fact are easily accessed. Dr. David Hanson has published over 300 scholarly articles on issues related to alcohol consumption over the past forty years. He has written two full length books and appeared on numerous television and radio programs as a recognized expert. He is currently Professor Emeritus at the State University of New York at Potsdam. He clearly states in his biographical information that he receives absolutely no funding for his research from outside sources, so he is beholden to no one. He states that he publishes what logic dictates regardless of who it may offend. This source for information on alcohol consumption is decidedly left of center. The author spends much time debunking myths about alcohol consumption that seem to be near and dear to the heart of right wing discourse concerning alcohol consumption. Most notably, the author makes a strong case for parents to consume alcohol with their children within the home. This is a radical notion in the United States, where a prohibition of alcohol consumption for anyone under the age of 21 is in effect. While more common in Europe, American families rarely drink together until the children are of a legal age to do so. Another segment of the web site that is decidedly left-leaning is the suggestions the author makes concerning the deterrence of drunk driving. The author argues that proactive initiatives such as Driving While Intoxicated (DWI) courts are especially helpful because their outcomes

Sustainable Filmless Packaging and Alternate Packaging Solutions Essay

Sustainable Filmless Packaging and Alternate Packaging Solutions - Essay Example Aside from the simplified supply chain, the merging of the two technologies also lessened the productions costs through the printing of cartons in a single pass only. Carbon emissions are also lessened because of having just one printing press instead of two, and the transferring of the cartons from area to another is eliminated. And due to the new coating technology, the cartons can be printed on-demand, thus, eliminating long wait periods. The quality of the colors and metallic sheen are not put into risk because the new coating technology contains aluminum flakes that give of a bright shine for the toothpaste’s packaging. Added to that is the more sustainable attributes that the new coating has. The Packaging Digest Magazine has provided vast and quality information regarding the latest trends in sustainable packaging. The information regarding Aquafresh is the latest in sustainable packaging technology discussed in the online magazine and can be the technology to be followed. This technology is only a start of such sustainable packaging innovations and can be applied not only to cartons but hopefully to other packaging materials, as well. In the midst of the conventional packaging solutions prevalent in the markets today, alternative packaging solutions have been gaining recognition in sustainable packaging designs. Such solutions use biodegradable paper or discarded agricultural products that could easily be composted or reused. One example of such alternative packaging solutions is the carton used by Cargo Cosmetics in their lipsticks products. The carton is made of biodegradable paper embedded with real wildflower seeds.  

Google human resources practices Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Google human resources practices - Assignment Example The analysis should involve a brief overview of the model that will be used. The latter was developed by Edgar Schein and consists of three elements. The first of them focuses on artefacts of an organisation which is anything visible that has a connection towards the company. Indeed, an artefact is not only the logo, it is also the colour that a company primarily uses in its products, the way employees great customers, even the design of the building. In other words, it is the physical manifestation of the company.The second level included espoused values. It must be noted that the elements of the model differ in the way they are connected to the material world; therefore, the second element which will more abstract. Thus, values also stand for the image of the company, but a mental one. In other words, this level includes goals, mission statement and other elements that were designed to explain the manner in which a company operates. In other words, this level of organizational cult ure focuses on the long term perspective of business and encourages people to do their best in order to live up to these expectations.The third element that should be analyzed carefully is underlying assumptions. Indeed, one might suggest that the highest level of manifestation of organisational culture should be extremely perfect and not embodied into anything. While artefacts are physical objects and values can be physically written on a piece of paper, the underlying assumptions are those ideas about the organisation that people take for granted.

Principles of Risk Transfer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Principles of Risk Transfer - Essay Example In assessing the captive insurance industry in Bermuda, there is a need to understand the nature and merits of considering Bermuda’s domicile. Bermuda’s Captive Domicile Bermuda is a leading offshore captive domicile globally. This is a result of onshore administrative burdens and the costs related to conducting business in a US-based or Lloyd’s-based captive in the mid 20th century. This forced Reiss to look out for authority that would permit the flourishing of the captive insurance. Bermuda was selected due to its unique geographical site, good image and status as a British sovereign boundary that disliked uncertainties and perils normally encountered by multinational corporations conducting their business in politically volatile and irresponsible nations. Besides, captives in Bermuda are majorly owned by huge US firms. It can be noted that the second biggest licensing authority in relation to the number of captives is the Cayman Islands (Duffy, 2004, p. 97). Vermont ranks second in connection to the assets owned by insurance firms and third in relation to licensing of the captives. Regulation of Bermudan is done by the Registrar of Companies and the Minister of Finance under the Insurance Act of 1978, the companies Act of 1981 and the Insurance Amendment Act of 1996 (Sierk, 2008, p. 51). Through the regulation a better flexibility is offered compared to other authorities, with the industry carrying the burden of self-regulation, which accounts for the great success of insurance in the state. Moreover, the insurance industry has frequent annual audits jointly with a certificate of solvency, which ensures transparency in the manner risks are managed. Furthermore, most of the captives are registered in two classes under the Insurance Act. Class 1 insurers are unit parent captives, which are not allowed to write any form of unconnected business, while class 2 are relational captives or multi-parent, which are allowed to write up to 20% unco nnected business (Sierk, 2008, p. 59). Class 1 insurers have a minimum solvency requirement of $ 120,000 during the time of writing while class 2 has a minimum solvency requirement of $ 250,000. However, there are other classes which insurers can register; one of them is class 3, which does not include insurers and reinsurers. This class has a minimum requirement of $ 1 million. Class 4 has a minimum requirement of $ 100 million, which includes insurers and reinsurers writing instant additional liability or asset catastrophe risks. In addition, Bermuda is the best domicile since it has no income, corporate or through withholding taxes for operation of the captive insurance. Besides, the initial cost of putting up an insurance company is approximately $ 10,000. The legislation also provisions for rent-a-captives and secured cell firms (DFA, 2007, p. 13). The insurance industry’s rent-a-captive projects permit unconnected participants to be involved in the process of profits un derwriting from the insured risks in the captive. It also allows them to place irrelevant perils via the captive. Securitization of debt is eventually enabled in the risk securitization. Protected cell firms permit a firm to have distinct departments or cells independent of the other cells in circumstances of liquidation. Apparently, the joint combination of secured cell regulation and the rent-a-captives gives

PMF Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

PMF - Essay Example New opportunities – Every business has to constantly look out for ways it can expand the base of its customer. Therefore, new opportunities are created by use of better communication skills especially in writing or else this can limit oneself the chance for success. Effects of changing the framework - this enables an organization to allow adjustments, and respond to changes made on objectives, of the organization. Participation in management change and process improvement projects and initiatives. As well as providing recommendations to develop and enhance existing systems and controls. Determining data systems and process solutions that addresses business needs, and enhancing developed methods for implementation. How these activities have prepared me for a PMF position with the Federal Government? From these activities, my day to day skills on management are enhanced through a significant understanding of the business strategy. My increased knowledge in business has enabled m e to be better equipped when dealing with complicated business management. There is a great enhancement on my ability to manage, motivate and lead other workers. Through the projects, working with the federal government can help gain valuable consultation designed particularly for its needs. These activities have offered me the exposure to various federal departments through a position at PMF. I have the opportunity to make connections with mentors of a senior level. The different projects I indulged in have prepared me psychologically to deal with more challenging tasks imminent in a PMF position. The leadership roles prevalent in the special projects have enhanced and prepared me to demonstrate my leadership ability and potential once I have become a PMF. I am at a better position as a budget analyst to work on several projects that I could not get access to while on the leeway. The business financial matters are important in a PMF position hence as a business analyst my capabilit ies will form a basis in solving financial matters eminent in the business industry. How I have demonstrated my commitment to public service? It is such an inspiration for me to work for the public service as I am willing to commit myself and serve my country as well as my fellow citizens. I have always desired to work in the public service especially for the government as I see it like a privilege to use my skills and help other people. This commitment developed into a career path when I was on internship at Clothing and Textiles Company whereby I created the annual budget plan of 2012 for the company, which was successfully approved by the board of trustees and the CEO was amazed by what I had structured as well. To start with, I ensured that I have followed a well structured idea of the duties a budget analyst should perform. I had to ensure that every department adhered in accordance with the company’s procedures and policies. I saw to it that the company’s managem ent was provided with a good analysis regarding budgetary issues and ensured the financial data was readily available for the company’s decision making. I made sure that the estimation of the budget was adequate and reasonable at the same time. I developed policies and guidelines which would help govern the maintenance of using these budgets. From time to time I conducted

The assignment should be presented as a Journal opinion article and Essay - 2

The assignment should be presented as a Journal opinion article and address an economic issue of current interest to Wall Street Journal readers - Essay Example This is according to the National Association of Realtors monthly survey on real- estate agents. On the other hand, foreclosing has incorporated selling out at a discount rate to traditional homes. This is because of lenders’ motivation to cut the price and in order to sell fast. In addition, the maintenance of these homes is not up to standard. As a result, a foreclosed property sale can bring down the ‘comps’ involved in appraising the value of other homes being sold in the neighborhood. A survey carried out indicates that, sales from previously owned homes have gone down during the last eight months. The sales were down 7.5% a year earlier, resulting to five consecutive months where sales have dropped below the year earlier level (Timiraos, 2014). Moreover, some of the decline in the existing home sales is because of shrinking supply of distressed homes. To the home sellers and builders, this is good news, unlike for the investors or real estate agents whose living was depended on recycling these properties onto the market. Although the home prices no longer depreciate, traditional sellers have been reluctant in listing their homes for sale. In addition, the building of new homes is still low. The impact of this is that, the homes in the market are not many. The effect of this is that, prices are very high due to the high demand but the homes are less in supply. To the homeowners, this is a great deal but unwelcoming to anyone in search for a house and currently does not possess one. Therefore, even as home sales have decreased, monthly supply of homes is way below the highs of housing bust because there are few homes available to make a choice. The slowing effect of housing market is therefore due to a few homes available for sale, leading to high prices. These gains are the cause of homes being less affordable, particularly after mortgage rates heightened recently.

Poem Imagery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Poem Imagery - Essay Example By personifying nature as a "crowd" the poet is escaping his solitude. The poet goes on to give human characteristics to the daffodils by describing them as "dancing in the breeze". The following lines give the reader the sense that the poet is going even further into his curing of loneliness by personifying nature as he assimilates the daffodils with stars"continuous as the stars that shine". He was just comparing himself to a cloud and a few lines later, the poet compares the daffodils to stars, also a celestial object. He is identifying with the daffodils. His personification of the daffodils continues in the line "tossing their heads in sprightly dance". By giving the daffodils human characteristics, he is able to find comfort in their presence thus emphasizing his loneliness from the beginning, even more so. In hindsight, he is claiming to not have realized the beauty or the importance of this moment in time as he goes on to say"I gazed- and gazed but -little thought, What wealth the show to me had brought". He continues with this tense of remembering by saying "for off when on my couch I lie, in vacant or in pensive mood, they flash upon that inward eye, that is the bliss of solitude".

Challenges in the Third Sector Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Challenges in the Third Sector - Essay Example Social benefit structures are usually diverse in different nations. These systems take care of components of social defence, family unit strategy and individual dependability in a different way, and all over the Europe, a combination of these components can be found. Their individual characteristics still control nationalized social exchange of ideas, even though globalisation, altering financial conditions, progressive EU legislative and increased stress on resources appears to direct towards ‘convergence’ .Although in some European nations, civil society - even if the phrase itself is of current derivation - has been a venerable happening, other nations’ experience with them is fresh. Global commonality either has brought active establishments in Europe to start non-governmental organizations or help their counterparts in rising parliamentary governments do this, and their support is usually ongoing.There is no established description of the expression 'civil so ciety establishment'; however, it is normally implicit to take account of the social associates, NGOs, mutual interest organizations and local establishments (Comaroff, p. 99, 2009). What all establishments have in common is their ‘not for profit’ nature, which does not indicate they cannot produce in excess, but does indicate they have to be reinvested in and utilized for the common use of the establishment. In various nations, the global year of volunteers 2001 has evidently been an incentive to reorganize as well as develop volunteering directive.

Internship in an Investment Bank Essay Example for Free

Internship in an Investment Bank Essay Internship is a system of on-the-job training for white-collar jobs. It is a work related learning experience for individuals who wish to develop hands on work experience in a certain occupational field. Most internship is temporary assignments. As such my intern too was temporary for a period of one month. My association with Goldman Sachs was during my semester vacation. To me internship is to combine theory with practical work experience. As such my intern period was of great help in that sense. Generally the objectives of internships are: * Develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situation. * Aptitude test for a particular career. * Develop and pursue business ethics. * Increase on the sense of responsibility. * Opportunity to understand informal organizational interrelationships. * Enhance employment opportunities * Develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers. * Provides inside exposure to the structure, operations and decision process within the organization without a commitment to a permanent employer. Some of the obvious advantages an internship offers include strengthening written and oral skills, helping to make contacts to gain future employment, to enhance and strengthen the intern’s resume. Gain an increased awareness of skills, attributes, personal qualities and values. Guides a student to find out what it is to like to work in a business environment. However duties which aren’t structured either not enough to do or random office work or nothing to do with the supposed internship may result in just a waste of time and valuable resources. Sometimes the intern may not have enough time to learn the nuances of the industry and no proper guide or a mentor to guide the individual through the process. It may also result as a burden financially and mentally. About Goldman Sachs History 1869–1930 Goldman Sachs was founded in New York in 1869 by the German-born Marcus Goldman. The company made a name for itself pioneering the use of commercial paper for entrepreneurs and was invited to join the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) in 1896. In the early 20th century, On December 4, 1928, it launched the Goldman Sachs Trading Corp. a closed-end fund. 1930–1980 In 1930, Sidney Weinberg assumed the role of senior partner and shifted Goldmans focus away from trading and towards investment banking. It was Weinbergs actions that helped to restore some of Goldmans tarnished reputation. On the back of Weinberg, Goldman was lead advisor on the Ford Motor Companys IPO in 1956, which at the time was a major coup on Wall Street. Under Weinbergs reign the firm also started an investment research division and a municipal bond department. It also was at this time that the firm became an early innovator in risk arbitrage. 1980–1999 On November 16, 1981, the firm made a move by acquiring J. Aron Company, a commodities trading firm which merged with the Fixed Income division to become known as Fixed Income, Currencies, and Commodities. J. Aron was a player in the coffee and gold markets, and the current CEO of Goldman, Lloyd Blankfein, joined the firm as a result of this merger. In 1986, the firm formed Goldman Sachs Asset Management, which manages the majority of its mutual funds and hedge funds today. Since 1999 One of the largest events in the firms history was its own IPO in 1999. The decision to go public was one that the partners debated for decades. In the end, Goldman decided to offer a small portion of the company to the public, with some 48% still held by the partnership pool 22% of the company was held by non-partner employees, and 18% was held by retired Goldman partners. Goldman Sachs Overview The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. is an American multinational bulge bracket investment banking and securities firm that engages in global investment banking, securities, investment management, and other financial services primarily with institutional clients. Goldman Sachs was founded in 1869 and is headquartered at 200 West Street in the Lower Manhattan area of New York City, with additional offices in international financial centers. The firm provides mergers and acquisitions advice, underwriting services, asset management, and prime brokerage to its clients, which include corporations, governments and individuals. The firm also engages in market making and private equity deals, and is a primary dealer in the United States Treasury security market. It is recognized as one of the most prestigious investment banks in the world. As of 2009, Goldman Sachs employed 31,701 people worldwide.Goldman Sachs is divided into three businesses units: * Investment Banking * Trading and Principal Investments * Asset Management and Securities Services Investment banking Investment banking is divided into two divisions and includes Financial Advisory (mergers and acquisitions, investitures, corporate defense activities, restructuring and spin-offs) and Underwriting (public offerings and private placements of equity, equity-related and debt instruments). Goldman Sachs is one of the leading MA advisory firms, often topping the league tables in terms of transaction size. The firm gained a reputation as a white knight in the mergers and acquisitions sector by advising clients on how to avoid hostile takeovers, moves generally viewed as unfriendly to shareholders of targeted companies. Goldman Sachs, for a long time during the 1980s, was the only major investment bank with a strict policy against helping to initiate a hostile takeover, which increased the firms reputation immensely among sitting management teams at the time. The investment banking segment accounts for around 17 percent of Goldman Sachs revenues. The firm has been involved in brokering dea ls to privatize major highways by selling them to foreign investors, in addition to advising state and local governments – including Indiana, Texas, and Chicago – on privatization projects. Trading and principal investments Trading and Principal Investments is the largest of the three segments, and is the companys profit center. The segment is divided into four divisions and includes: * Fixed Income The trading of interest rate and credit products, mortgage-backed securities, insurance-linked securities and structured and derivative products * Currency and Commodities The trading of currencies and commodities * Equities The trading of equities, equity derivatives, structured products, options, and futures contracts * Principal Investments merchant banking investments and funds This segment consists of the revenues and profit gained from the Banks trading activities, both on behalf of its clients known as flow trading and for its own account known as proprietary trading. Most trading done by Goldman is not speculative, but rather an attempt to profit from bid-ask spreads in the process of acting as a market maker. On average, around 68 percent of Goldmans revenues and profits are derived from trading . Asset Management and Securities Services As the name suggests, the firms Asset Management and Securities Services segment is divided into two components: Asset Management and Securities Services. The Asset Management division provides investment advisory and financial planning services and offers investment products (primarily through separately managed accounts and commingled vehicles) across all major asset classes to a diverse group of institutions and individuals worldwide. The unit primarily generates revenues in the form of management and incentive fees. The Securities Services division provides clearing, financing, custody, securities lending, and reporting services to institutional clients, including hedge funds, mutual funds, and pension funds. The division generates revenues primarily in the form of interest rate spreads or fees. About Operations Division Operations is at the core of Goldman Sachs. For every trade agreed, every new product launched or market entered, every transaction completed, it is Operations that enables business to flow. Operations is a dynamic, multi-faceted division that partners with all areas of the firm to deliver banking, sales and trading and asset management capabilities to clients around the world. In addition, Operations provides essential risk management and control, preserving and enhancing the firm’s assets and its reputation. The Operations division represents approximately 14% of the firm, with more than 4,500 employees across the globe. Operations spans across all product lines and markets where business is conducted. Each area of business offers diverse opportunities that leverage a common core skill set. While there may be a group that interests you, it is not necessary to identify the group you would like to join when applying. †¢Clearing Operations provides clearing, execution and custody services for all major trading products across 75 exchanges. Our goal is to deliver superior client service, broad product offering and scalable technology to our global client base and franchise trading businesses, while minimizing operational risk. Our clients include hedge funds, asset managers, governments, corporates, broker dealers, Goldman Sachs franchise traders, other professional investors and market markers. †¢Derivatives Operations is responsible for ensuring efficient and accurate transaction processing across a broad range of products. Generally, the products supported are complex instruments that require close alignment with the business. A key focus for the organization is establishing strong risk management procedures and controls to ensure the firm and our clients are properly protected. Derivatives Operations is at the forefront of shaping and driving change in the industry with the ultimate aim of delivering greater accuracy, control and efficiency for our clients and our business. †¢Investment Management Operations delivers asset management and wealth management capabilities to clients around the world. We are a multi-faceted group that partners with all areas of the Investment Management Division to support evolving markets and business requirements. Alongside that vital service delivery role, Investment Management Operations provides essential risk management and control. †¢Liquidity Collateral Operations (LCO) manages the operational elements for daily funding and liquidity of the firm, oversees the firms payment strategy and overall cash flows and positions, and also performs key functions related to counterparty risk management, client transparency, and product and pricing data. In addition to the traditional line functions, LCO is home to Operations Technology Strategy and Reference Data Strategy, both of which focus on strategic process and technology solutions for the division and often the broader firm. †¢Regulatory Tax Operations is responsible for over 500 non-financial reporting and monitoring functions to over 400 regulators and exchanges. The group enhances the firms regulatory and tax transaction and position data and operational controls and develops best practices and standards for processing, infrastructure, and change management. The group aims to leverage expertise consistently across regions and entities in order to demonstrate supervision to regulators and provide efficiency, data accuracy, and transparency around controls. †¢Risk Control Operations supports the firm by ensuring the integrity of books and records, assessing regulatory requirements, and interfacing with regulators frequently. In addition, the group provides the firm with critical control indicators that assess economic, regulatory, and operational risks, while providing oversight of the Operations Division Risk Framework. †¢Securities Operations supports the Securities, Investment Management and Investment Banking Divisions of the firm. This group manages key relationships for the bank and infrastructure providers, on boarding of institutional and prime brokerage clients, and assists in the coordination of issuance of new financial product. Work Done and Experience I did my summer internship in the Operations Division of Goldman Sachs. My project was primarily based on corporate card reconciliation process. Being an intern to the office, there was a lot to be learnt and a lot more to be implemented, but the people at GS were really accommodating and willing to give the interns the required space and time. Goldman Sachs has, a completely flat organizational structure and everyone is very helpful and you can reach out to almost anyone and he/she will be more than willing to help. The Program is very efficiently carried out and there’s a lot to learn. The firm has its own In-House University where there are innumerable courses on Financial Markets, Corporate Finance, Investment Banking that we needed to learn from. Everything you do and suggest mostly goes into Production i.e. LIVE so obviously you will be having a hands-on experience on things which are actually going to be implemented. All things said, there is deadline within which the work needs to be done. Goldman Sachs was a good shot to achieve out of this internship – improved Problem Solving, Industrial Exposure, Understanding of Financial Markets. At Goldman Sachs, everyone is encouraged to take on more responsibility and stretch themselves. People are very professional and are always there to help when needed. This makes it a fun place to work even though the nature of work is very challenging.

Procurement Analysis Implementation

Procurement Analysis Implementation The development of procurement strategy follows the stages in the life of a project. Initially, a preliminary strategy is determined. It is based on a broad definition of objectives and is an essential step in establishing the way forward for the project. It encourages the client to consider strategy early. The preliminary procurement strategy is usually developed with help from the clients adviser and possibly other consultants. Procurement strategy development has three components: †¢ analysis assessing and setting the priorities of the project objectives and requirements; †¢ choice considering possible options, evaluating them and selecting the most appropriate; and †¢ implementation putting the chosen strategy into effect. During strategy preparation, it may be necessary to seek specialist advice from other consultants, for example, in relation to expected costs for the project. The adviser should advise the client on this. Specialist advice should besought when developing the strategy for novel or especially difficult projects. Until construction contracts are let, the client, with help from his adviser, must systematically ensure that the strategy is on course to meet the projects established objectives. This is important because objectives sometimes change. Procurement Methods There are various methods of procurement which can be broadly classified under the following headings: Traditional Design and Build Two Stage Tendering Public Private Partnerships / Private Finance Initiative Management Contracting Construction Management Framework Agreements Each method has different aspects of risk transfer and no one method can be classed as best overall. Traditional Procurement In this method the Contractor builds to a defined scope of works for a fixed price lump sum. The client retains the responsibility for the design and the project team. The contractor will be appointed normally following a tender process or negotiation and will sign up to a contract for the works. There are a number of standard forms of building contract available for this purpose. Design and Build Procurement The Client appoints a building contractor, as before standard forms of contract are available for this purpose to provide a completed building to an agreed cost and programme. The Contractor is responsible for design and construction. The Contractor can be chosen through a tender process or through negotiation. The Client can appoint a consultant to oversee the works. Maximum risk is transferred following this method of procurement, although a commercial response to design in order to address contract conditions can result. An alternative is to appoint a contractor when designs have been developed in order to retain control of the important elements of design and specification. The Design Team can then transfer their contractual obligations to the contractor and complete the designs on behalf of the Contractor. This process is called Novation. Two Stage Tender Procurement In this process, the Contractor is appointed on the basis of a first stage tender which determines the level of overhead and profit for each Contractor. The Contractor then works with the Project Team during the second stage to develop the designs and establish detailed costings for separate project work elements. This process will provide for a fixed price on a detailed design basis. The provider can then enter into a contract on this fixed price basis and also pursue the opportunity to novate the Design Team as with the Design and Build Procurement route as previously noted. This process requires a long second stage period in which to design and tender the different work elements and therefore a start on site would occur later than normal. Public Private Partnerships Public Private Partnerships (PPP), particularly Private Finance Initiatives (PFI) projects are created for the provision of services and not specifically for the exclusive provision of capital assets such as buildings. It is therefore preferable to investigate PPPs as soon as possible after a user need has been identified rather than leaving it until a conventional construction project has been selected as the solution. It should be noted that the tendering process in this procurement route is expensive and requires negotiation rather than competitive tendering. In comparison with other procurement routes the time from commencement of the project to attaining a start on site is substantially longer. Management Contracting This is a fast track strategy which overlaps the design and construction stages and allows early elements of the construction process to be commenced before design has been completed. The Management Contractor is engaged to manage the overall contract in return for a fee. The Management Contractor can therefore be appointed early in the design and can advise on buildability and programming. In addition to the contract with the Management Contractor, the contracts for the individual work packages are between the Management Contractor and the individual sub-contractors. A cost plan is utilised to control the development costs although actual costs cannot be obtained until the final work package has been awarded. Construction Management This is also a fast track strategy where individual elements of the project are let before the design of later work packages or elements have been completed. The provider will appoint a Construction Manager to manage the overall contract in return for a management fee as with Management Contracting. Also, as before, the project can benefit from early involvement of the Contractor. In this process the contracts for the sub-contractors are placed directly between the Client and the sub-contractor and the Client will need to have a high level of involvement during the design development and the construction phases of the work. As with Management Contracting, the final costs will only be known once the final work elements have been awarded. Framework Agreements Framework Agreements can be established with single suppliers or with a limited number of suppliers. Frameworks can allow suppliers to be brought together with the relevant expertise and experience which can result in savings to both parties where a number of projects are involved. These agreements can cover different forms of procurement including Design and Build, Traditional, etc. The LSC are currently developing framework agreements for consultancy services accross the country. These should be available for use by colleges by early 2008. Following on from this, the LSC will also be working on developing a contractors framework. London Heathrow Airport (LHA/EGLL) Terminal 5, United Kingdom Terminal 5 is one of Europes largest and most complex construction projects. With 16 major projects and over 147 sub-projects, it has encompassed a vast and hugely complex programme of works. Key Data Start Year September 2002 Project Type New terminal construction Location London, UK Contract Value  £4.2bn Completion Phase 1 April 2008Phase 2 2011 Key Players Sponsors BAA, private investment, HM Government Lead Architect Richard Rogers Partnership Strategic Planning and Design Services Halcrow Group Ltd Cost Consultant Services E C Harris Group Ltd Turner and Townsend Group Planning Supervisor Bovis Engineering Ltd Structural Tunnel and Rail Consultant Mott MacDonald Ltd Project Management and Support Services Parsons Brinkerhoff Ltd Civil construction infrastructure and logistics delivery Laing ORourke Civil Engineering Ltd Architectural station design consultant architectural production and brief development HOK International Ltd Construction management Mace Ltd Technical features: In addition to the main terminal building, Terminal 5 also consists of two satellite buildings (the second of which will be completed by 2010), 60 aircraft stands, a new air traffic control tower, a 4,000 space multi storey car park, the creation of a new spur road from the M25, a 600 bed hotel, the diversion of two rivers and over 13 kilometres of bored tunnel, including extensions to the Heathrow Express and Piccadilly Line services. This work encompasses a multitude of construction related skills including civil engineering, building, highway engineering, mechanical  and  electrical engineering, tunnelling, railway engineering, specialist systems technology and project logistics management. The Stages of Construction: Stage1: Site preparation and enabling words Firstly the 260 hectare site was surveyed and excavated by archaeologists.   Preparation for construction then involved levelling the site, removing the sludge lagoons and building temporary facilities including roads, offices and logistics centres. Stage 2: Groundworks substructures This phase included the earthworks and the construction of the foundations and substructures for the terminal basements. It also included building the drainage systems and the rail tunnels.  Ã‚   A total of 9 million cubic meters of earth will have been excavated during the earthworks phase. A proportion of this earth was used to create the embankments for the M25 spur road and landscape the Colne Valley, while the rest is used to backfill the main site. Stage 3: Major structures This phase included erecting the huge free standing roof structure of the main terminal building (T5A), and its interior superstructure. It also included the superstructure and roof of the first satellite (T5B) as well as the multi-storey car park and ancillary buildings such as the energy centre. Stage 4: Fit out This involved the fit out of the buildings interiors including, the building services modules (ie, power, heating and ventilation systems), the baggage system, the track transit system (people mover) and specialist electronic systems.   It also included the fixtures and fittings and the retail areas. Stage 5: Implementation of operational readiness Operational readiness is necessary to ensure that Terminal 5s infrastructure and systems are fully complete and tested, that staff working in the terminal are properly trained and that all the necessary operational procedures for Terminal 5s opening day on 27 March 2008 are in place. Phase 2: Construction for the basements for the second satellite building (T5C) and additional aircraft stands commenced in 2006.   However, the main building structure will not be completed until 2010. Procurement Strategy Adopted T5 Agreement From the outset BAA recognised that the risk associated with such a huge and complex infrastructure project required a fresh approach to construction management.  Research conducted by BAA into major construction projects highlighted two key areas that seemed to undermine progress; cultural confusion and the reluctance to acknowledge risk.In a move to prevent Terminal 5 from suffering from costly delays and budget over-runs, BAA developed a unique and bespoke commercial partnering agreement with contractors and suppliers called The Terminal 5 agreement.  A contract based on relations and behaviours, it was designed to expose risk rather than transfer it to other parties. Advantages: a)UK construction best practice is expected as a minimum standard on, and in light of this the project has had to ensure key milestones are met on time, on cost and to high quality and safety standards. b)An incentive scheme encourages teams to work together in order to find the most efficient way of achieving these milestones. c)Through the agreement BAA accepts that it carries all of the risk for the construction project. d) Focus on managing out the cause of problems, not the effects if they happen e) Work in truly integrated teams in a successful, if uncertain environment f) Focus on proactively managing risk rather than avoiding litigation. g)With the burden of accountability lifted, those working on T5 can do so innovatively and positively. While traditional arrangements can result in a highly unproductive culture of blame and confrontation if something goes wrong, h)Under the T5 Agreement a premium is placed on delivering solutions and results. I)Many of the suppliers involved in Terminal 5 were brought on-board at the earliest stages of the planning process. This enabled completely integrated expert teams to work together to identify potential problems and issues before designs were finalised and fabrication and construction began. As a result the teams of suppliers and consultants are in a position to add value whilst designing safe solutions within the time, quality, cost and safety targets. j)UK construction best practice performance on Terminal 5 is expected as a minimum standard. In light of this, the project has to ensure key milestones are met on time, on cost and to high quality and safety standards. k) BAA only has a direct contractual relationship with ‘First Tier suppliers, of which there are around 60. It is the First Tier suppliers who are responsible for the appointment and management of ‘Second Tiersuppliers or subcontractors. In doing so they too are expected to operate within the spirit of the T5 Agreement. The English national stadium project at Wembley Key Facts about Wembley: The stadium will be used primarily for football and rugby league but will also, after adaptation, be capable of hosting major international athletics events. ! The project is expected to cost  £757 million and is scheduled for completion early in 2006. ! The Football Association is contributing  £148 million to the project and commercial lenders have provided debt facilities of  £433 million. ! The public sector funders are providing  £161 million ( £120 million of lottery money from Sport England,  £20 million from the Department for CultureMedia and Sport and  £21 million from the London Development Agency) to the project. ! The stadium will be owned and operated by Wembley National Stadium Limited,a wholly owned subsidiary of the Football Association. ! Profits from the operation of the stadium will be used by the Football Association in accordance with its objects for the benefit of football. ! Starting five years after the stadium opens, Wembley National Stadium Limited will donate one per cent of its turnover each year for distribution to sports education and other projects. Key Features: With 90,000 seats, the new Wembley is the largest stadium in the world with every seat under cover. This capacity is separated into 3 tiers of seating, with the lower tier holding 34,303 spectators, the middle one 16,932 and the upper one 39,165[14] The stadium contains 2,618 toilets, more than any other venue in the world.[15] The stadium has a circumference of 1  km (0.6  mi).[2] At its peak, there were more than 3,500 construction workers on site.[16] 4,000 separate piles form the foundations of the new stadium,[2] the deepest of which is 35  m (115  ft).[2] There are 56 km (35 miles) of heavy-duty power cables in the stadium.[2] 90,000  m ³ (120,000  cu  yds) of concrete and 23,000 tonnes (25,000 short tons) of steel were used in the construction of the new stadium.[2] The total length of the escalators is 400  m ( ¼Ã‚  mi).[2] The Wembley Arch has a diameter greater than that of a cross-channel train.[17][18]

Analysis of Drug Delivery Systems

Analysis of Drug Delivery Systems INTRODUTION SECTION 1.1: ORAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM A drug delivery system is defined as a formulation or a device that can be introduce the therapeutic or pharmaceutical substance in to the body and improves the efficacy and safety of substance by controlling the time, rate and place of drug release in the body. Drug delivery system is an interface between the patient and the drug. It may be a formulation of drug to administer it for a therapeutic or medical reason or a device used drug delivery. Oral drug delivery system is most desirable, preferable and suitable route for the administration of therapeutic and pharmaceutical agents for administration. Historically the oral route of drug administration has been the one used most for both conventional as well as the novel drug delivery. The reasons for this preference are obvious because of ease of administration. Oral drug delivery is the most desirable, suitable and preferred method of administering therapeutic agents for their systemic effects. The oral medication is mostly conside red as the first investigation in the development and discovery of new drug molecules and pharmaceutical preparations, mainly because of acceptance by the patients, convenience, and cost effective manufacturing process. For many drug substances conventional immediate release formulations provide clinically and therapeutically effective therapy while maintaining the required level of pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles with acceptable level of safety to the patient. Multiple unit dosage forms such as microspheres or micro beads have gained in popularity as oral drug delivery systems because of high uniformity of the drug distribution in the gastrointestinal tract, better drug absorption, minimized local irritation and elimination of unwanted intestinal retention of polymers and other excipients, when compared to non-disintegrating single unit dosage form.2 SECTION 1.2: CONTROLLED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM A wide variety of newer oral drug delivery systems like sustained/controlled release dosage forms are designed and evaluated in order to overcome the limitations of conventional therapy. These products are able to maintain steady drug plasma levels for extended periods of time as a result the variations of the drug levels in the blood are prevented and minimized drug related side effects.3 The controlled release drug delivery systems are aimed at controlling the rate of drug delivery, sustaining the time period of therapeutic activity and targeting the drug delivery to a tissue. Drug release from these systems should be at a desired rate, predictable and reproducible. Among the various approaches for controlled systems, microencapsulation process and microcapsules have gained good acceptance as a process to achieve controlled release and drug targeting.4 The goal in designing sustained or controlled delivery system is to reduce the frequency of dosing or to increase the effectiveness of the drug by localization at the site action, reducing the dose required, or providing uniform drug delivery.5 Of growing interest generally in the world of oral drug delivery is colon-targeted delivery for treatment of both local and systemic conditions. It is recognised that this region of the Gastrointestinal tract offers advantages over the stomach and small intestine, e.g. milder pH, lower enzymatic activity, lower bile salt concentrations, longer residence time and slower turnover of the mucus layer. For biopharmaceutical delivery, it also appears to offer the benefit of allowing greater functioning of absorption enhancers, thus allowing reasonable bioavailability of drugs such as peptides which would normally be poorly absorbed from the GI tract.6 Controlled release systems are used in the improvement of the effectiveness of drug therapy. These systems modify several parameters of the drug: the release profile and capacity to cross biological carriers (depending on the size of the particle), biodistribution, clearance, and stability (metabolism), among others. In other words, the pharmacokinetics and the pharmacodynamics of the drug are modified by these formulations. Controlled release offers numerous advantages over conventional dosage forms. This approach increases therapeutic activity and decreases side effects, thus reducing the number of drug dosages required during treatment. Controlled release methods offer an appropriate tool for site-specific and time-controlled drug delivery. There are two main situations in which the distribution and time-controlled delivery of a drug can be beneficial- When the natural distribution of the drug causes major side effects due to its interaction with other tissues. When the natural drug distribution does not allow it to reach its molecular site of action due to degradation. Many different kinds of drugs can benefit from distribution or time-controlled delivery, such as anti-inflammatory agents, antibiotics, chemotherapeutic drugs, immunosuppressants, anesthetics and vaccines.7 1.2.1: Advantages of oral controlled release formulations Oral controlled drug delivery has been widely preferred in research because of its large number of benefits over conventional dosage forms, some of which are as follows: The frequency of dosing is less due to drug being released for a longer duration of time than conventional dosage form. This is highly valuable for the patients with chronic disease and illnesses which required to maintaining the plasma concentrations of a drug within the range of therapeutic effects to avoid breakthrough symptoms. The reduction or avoidance of side effects due to high plasma drug concentrations or ‘dose dumping’. Improvement of the patient compliance because of reduced dosing. Better control on the concentration of therapeutic drug in body. Cost effective manufacturing as the amount of dose required per patient would be reduced as compared to its conventional dosage form.8 SECTION 1.3: COATING OF FORMULATION Coating is defined as a process by which dosage form is covered with an essentially dry, outer layer of coating material by applying it on the surface of a formulation or dosage form for specific benefits that broadly ranges from improving product identification to modifying the release of the drug from the formulation. After making a good formulation, one must often coat it for many benefits. There are five reasons for putting such a coating on a pharmaceutical formulation: Protection of active pharmaceutical ingredients, from the acidic environment of the stomach (e.g. enzymes and certain antibiotics). To prevent gastric distress or nausea from a drug due to irritation (e.g. sodium salicylate ). For the delivery of drugs that are optimally absorbed in the small intestine to their primary absorption site in their most concentrated form. To provide a delayed/sustained release of drug substance for repeat action. Required for minimizing first pass metabolism of drugs.19 1.3.1: Coating material The coating material should be capable of forming a film that is cohesive with the materials required for coating, should be chemically compatible with the material and must be non reactive with the core material and provide the desired coating properties such as strength, impermeability, optical properties stability and flexibility. When coating is done by microencapsulation techniques the size of thickness of coating is in microscopic units. A number of different substances both non-biodegradable and biodegradable have been investigated for the formulation of microcapsules. These materials include the polymers of synthetic natural and origin and also modified natural substances. Some of the polymers used in the preparation of the microcapsules are classified and listed. 1.3.2: Ideal properties of an enteric coating material Resistance from the gastric fluids Permeable/Susceptible to the intestinal fluid Should be compatibility with the most components of coating solution and the substrates of the drug Formation of uniform and continuous film Cheap, nontoxic and easy to apply Provide ability in readily printed19 1.3.3: EUDRAGIT S100 Eudragit S100 is anionic copolymers based on methacrylic acid and methyl methacrylate. The IUPAC name of edragit S100 is Poly(methacrylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate). Eudragit S100 contains 30% of methacrylic units and dissolves at pH values higher than 7.0. Eudragit S100 is suitable coating agent for controlled and colon targeted drug delivery system.10 Eudragit S100 is an effective and stable enteric coating agent with fast dissolution in upper bowl. It is generally accepted that pH7 is not normally reached until at least the distal small bowel/ileocaecal region; thus drug release from formulations coated with Eudragit S100 is likely to commence at the junction between the small intestine and colon, continuing into the colon.6 SECTION 1.4: NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMATORY DRUGS Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are considered to be the first-line drugs in the symptomatic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondilytis and osteoarthritis. Aceclofenac is one of the emerging NSAID molecules for the treatment of arthritis. Aceclofenac is a new derivative of diclofenac and has less gastrointestinal complications. All drugs grouped in this class have analgesic, antipyretic antiinflammatory action in different measures. They do not depress CNS, do not produce the physical dependence, are weaker analgesics and have no abuse liability. They are more commonly employed and many are over-the-counter drugs.21 1.4.1: ACECLOFENAC Aceclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, widely used in the management of osteoarthritis, ankylosing, rheumatoid arthritis and spondylitis. Usual therapeutic dose is 100 mg twice daily and half life is 3-4 hrs; thus it is necessary to be administered frequently in order to maintain the desired concentration. 1.4.2: MECHANISM OF ACTION Aceclofenac drug acts as non selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase enzyme(COX). It inhibits both cyclooxygenase-1(COX-1) and cyclooxygense-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes. COX catalyses the formation of prostaglandin and thromboxane from archidonic acid. Prostaglandins act like messenger molecules in the process of pain and inflammation. Aceclofenac also have antipyretic activity and be used in treatment of pyrexiya. The reason of fever is the elevation in the levels of PGE2. Aceclofenac inhibits the biosynthesis of PGE2 within the hypothalamus to reduce the fever. Archidonic acid is precursor substrate for COX which helps to lead the production of prostaglandins F, D and E.22 SECTION 1.5: MICROENCAPSULATION Microencapsulation is a rapidly expanding technology for the preparation of formulatios in which drug is present as core material covered by polymer. As a process, it is a means applying relatively a thin coating to small solid particles or liquids droplets and dispersions. Microencapsulation is arbitrarily differentiated from macro-coating techniques in that the farmer involves the coating of particles is in the range between several tenths of a micron to 5000 microns in size.23 Microencapsulation is process by which thin coating can be applied reproducibly to small solids particles or liquid droplets or dispersions or even gases are encapsulated into micro sonic particles. Particle size range dimensionally from 1 Â µm to 1000 Â µm.9 Particulate drug delivery system are gaining more prominence in recent years because they uniformly distribute in the GIT there by improve the bioavailability of the drugs and also reduces the local irritation. Due to attractive properties and wider applications of microparticles, their application in controlled release formulation is appropriate. Microencapsulation is a rapidly expanding technology. Microencapsulation helps in converting the liquids into the solids, altering colloidal and surface properties of formulation, in providing environmental and external protection and in controlling the release behaviour or availability of coated materials. 1.5.1: Applications of microencapsulation In the development and the design of controlled and sustained release dosage form. Alteration in site of absorption. To mask the taste of bitter drugs. To provide the protection to the core material from atmospheric effects. To minimize gastric and other GIT irritation. In the preparation of free flowing powder formulations from drugs in liquid forms. Stabilization of drugs which are sensitive to moisture, light or oxygen. In the elimination of incompatibilities among drugs. Prevention of volatile drugs from vaporization. Reduction of toxicity. To reduce hygroscopicity. Alteration in site of absorption. 1.5.2: MICROENCAPSULATION BY IONOTROPIC GELATION METHOD Alginates have ability to form gels by reaction with calcium salts. Alginic acid is composed of D-mannuronic acid and L-gluronic acid residues at varying proportions of GG-, MM- and MG- blocks. When suspension of alginate is added drop by drop to the solution of calcium salt, crosslinking takes place between the carboxylate residue of GG- blocks and Ca+2 ions via egg-box model to give a tight gel network structure. This method is called ionotropic gelation method because in this process the anion of alginate and cation of calcium salt (mostly Ca+2ion) crosslinked to form a gel. These gels resemble a solid retaining their shape, resisting stress and consist of almost 100% water. It has been suggested that the cross-links are caused by simple ionic bridging of two carboxyl groups on adjacent polymer chain via calcium ions or by chelating of single calcium ions by hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on each a pair of polymer chains.24 In this method strong spherical beads with a narrow range particle size distribution and lower friability could be prepared. Beads formed by this method have high yield and drug content. The flow properties of micronized of needle like drug crystals can be improved by the help of agglomeration technique as compared to the non-agglomerated drug crystals. The ionic character of the polymers results from pH dependent disintegration of the beads. SECTION 1.6: GEL BEADS Gel beads are defined as spherical structure in which drug is present in the core of beads. Different types of gel beads can be prepared by using various techniques. Gel beads help in the slow dissolution of drug hence slowdown the release of drug, thus results in improvement of bioavailability of drug. 1.6.1: APPLICATIONS GEL BEADS Stomach specific drug delivery using floating alginate gel beads A multiple unit type oral floating dosage form of many drug have been developed in recent years. Drugs like riboflavin, ranitidine, diclofenac sodium were formulated to prolong the gastric residence time and increase bioavailability. Colon targeting Beads of various drugs have been formulated and further coated with enteric polymers for colon targeting. Protein drug delivery In recent years many formulations have been prepared for protein drug molecules for site specific release of protein in the intestine. Microbeads as inoculants and carriers for plant growth-promoting bacteria Beads of various bacteria are developed in recent years to promote the growth of plants. The release of bacteria from the microbeads depends on its type (wet or dry) and the time of incubation (the longer the incubation time, the smaller the extent of bacteria released with time). Enzyme immobilization Enzymes are immobilized by formation ofdehydrated gel beads for use in non-aqueous enzymatic reactions by having an average particle size of 5 to 150 microns.

The Evolution of Tragedy in Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, and Desire Under the E

The Evolution of Tragedy in Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, and Desire Under the Elms There are many genres of literature. Because of the age of this genre, it stands to reason that many variations have occurred throughout the years to make it reflect that time period. The genre of tragedy tends to be considered great because it occurs during great periods of history, it is about great men, and it is written by great writers.> The evolution of tragedy and the characteristics of tragedy are exemplified in the comparison of Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, and Desire Under the Elms. In the comparison of Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, and Desire Under the Elms the characteristics of tragedy are revealed. One characteristic is that tragedy appears during great times in history. It is thought that tragedy only occurs during great times in history because the people during those times have a sense of confidence that they can handle the horror of tragedy. Oedipus Rex was written during ancient Greece, which is considered the birthplace of the western culture. Ancient Greece is a time of great enlightenment in all of the arts, so it is not surprising that this is one of the beginnings of the tragedy. During this time Greece is rising in power so the people could enjoy watching others face hard times. Hamlet was written during another great period of history, the Renaissance. During this time people are moving out of the Middle Ages into a time of enlightenment, where a rebirth of interest in the arts occurs. This time also is marked by a confidence in one having a p rosperous future and the country as a whole looking toward a good life. Finally, Desire Under the Elms appeared during what is called the Modern period. The Modern period is anot... ...e determined. All three of these plays are great tragedies even if not all of them follow the characteristics of tragedy. It further proves that each period must make their own personal mark on the ideas of the arts in order to establish themselves as a distinct and great time period. [very good pick-up of earlier point] Without the evolution of these ideas, cultures would be stifled in the creative process and not stand out as an individual expressing the feelings of their time period. Works Consulted: O'Neill, Eugene. Desire Under the Elms. In Nine Plays by Eugene O'Neill. New York: Modern Library, 1941. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet. ca. 1600-1601. Ed. Edward Hubler. A Signet Classic. New York: Penguin Publishers,1963. Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. The Oedipus Cycle. Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald, trans. San Diego: Harvest, 1976

The Advancement of The Machine Gun Essay -- Warfare

War has been a recurring part of America’s history for the past hundreds of years. From the 1700s to the present, America has gotten into numerous situations and turmoil, which eventually lead to the wars we currently study and know about today. Technological advancements in warfare were necessary and a great obligation during times of war. This was pursued with drastic improvement. From the transformation of the use of smoothbore muskets during the Civil War to the industrial revolution leading to weaponry innovations post civil war, the nature of warfare dramatically changed. These developments proved to be proficient in battle. In the midst of these hundreds of years, while many technological advances demonstrated to be efficient in battle, the machine gun was one of the most significant advancements in technology that changed the face of warfare through its transformation of operations and strategy. During the civil war before the introduction of the machine guns, union soldiers predominantly used smoothbore muskets. â€Å"The rifle’s low muzzle velocity and consequent high parabolic trajectory made for difficult long-range shooting, especially since soldiers engaged in little target practice and received virtually no training in estimating distances or in using the adjustable sights to compensate for the bullet’s curved flight. The tangled terrain of most battlefields—and the black powder smoke that engulfed every battle—often rendered enemy soldiers invisible until they were within smoothbore range† (Hess 288). This was assumed to be the reason of why the war was prolonged, and the combat losses were higher during the smoothbore era. Also with an ability of only firing a â€Å"maximum of three rounds per minute† (Howey), this rat... ...smith, Dolf L., and R. Blake. Stevens. The Devil's Paintbrush: Sir Hiram Maxim’s Gun. Toronto: Collector Grade Publications, 1989. Print. 2. Hess, Earl J. The Rifle Musket in Civil War Combat: Reality and Myth. Lawrence, Kan: University Press of Kansas, 2008. Print. 3. Howey, Allan W. "Weaponry: The Rifle-Musket and the Minià © Ball  » History Net." History Net. Weider History Group, Oct. 1999. Web. 12 May 2012. . 4. Lee, Loyd E. World War II. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. Print. 5. Popenker, Max R. "Modern Firearms - MachineGuns." Max R. Popenker, 1999-2010. Web. 10 May 2012. . 6. Simkin, John. "Machine-Gun." Spartacus Educational - Home Page. John Simkin. Web. 10 May 2012. .

Free Hamlet Essays: Foils of Hamlet :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

Foils of Hamlet In the classic play Hamlet by William Shakespeare is a work that has and will test time. [SS - 1] In this piece of work there are many characters that contribute as foils. A foil is a minor character in a literary work who by the similarities and differences in what the character does (compared to a more important character) or by simple [sic] being there for another character to talk to which helps the audience understand a more important character. [SS - 1] There are many foils of the main character, Hamlet. Some of these foils of the main character include Hamlet and Ophelia, Hamlet and Horatio, and [sic] There are many reasons why Ophelia is a foil for Hamlet. If Ophelia was not in the play Hamlet would not have a love and there really wouldn't be a love story in the play. They are both basically the same social class and the same age. Eventhough [sic] Hamlet is a prince, Ophelia is close to him in social class because she is the daughter of Polonius, councilor to the king. They are both in the upper class. They both love each other. On the other hand, some of the differences are Hamlet is male and Ophelia is female. Also Hamlet is a little [more] on the crazy side than Ophelia. The importance of Ophelia in the story is to have a love for Hamlet and to have Hamlet talk to someone lovingly. This is why Ophelia is a foil of Hamlet. [How does "having Hamlet talk to someone lovingly" relate to the theme of the play (or to the characterization of Hamlet)?] Another foil of Hamlet is Horatio. Some similarities of Hamlet and Horatio are they are the same age and the same social class. Other similarities are that they are fellow students and basically best friends. Throughout the play there is no one closer to Hamlet than Horatio probably because they are such good friends. In the play Hamlet talks the most to Horatio which would be why he is considered one of Hamlet's foils. Some of the differences are that Horatio is sane and Hamlet is considered crazy. Basically, that is the only difference between the two. The importance of Horatio in the play is to be a best friend who Hamlet can come to and talk about what is going on in his life.

Organisational dialogue

First, this essay will explore the definitions of dialogue as well as organizational cultures and how these concepts related to each other. It is followed by a discussion on the ways that dialogue may have positive effects regarding the cultural aspects. The final section of this essay pays attention to the challenges of and solutions to implementing and promoting dialogue within an organization. There Is a variety of deflations of dialogue.The derivation of this word stems from the Greek roots dialogs which consists of did and logos. Did means through, and logos means the word, or more specifically, the meaning of the word' (Boom 1996, p. 6). Based on its origin, Boom (1996) defines dialogue as a combination of communication practices flowing through and among people, focused on discovering the essence and power of people thinking and how the group's culture is built through this process.Isaacs (1999) believes that dialogue Is, In particular, a flow of meaning, while Gerard and Elea nor (2001 ) define dialogue by contrasting It with discussion and conclude that dialogue is seeing the whole and connections between arts, learning through asking and answering, and creating shared meaning among group members. In further similarities, Gerard and Turfs (1995) assume that dialogue is concerned with the environment where belief and communication diversity are encouraged In terms of respects, honors and values, as well as awareness to raise the creation of shared meaning.The role of dialogue in relation to organizational culture is of thorough understanding through many deferent organizational culture definitions. In fact, we all commonly think that it is the way we do things around but through research of organizational behavior, Machines, Lessons & Traveling (2013) believe it ‘consists of values and assumptions shared within an organization' (p. 448). At the same time, for E. C. Martins and F. Turbulence (2003), the central Ingredient of culture Inside an organi zation is the subconscious shared values and beliefs.A powerful culture offers shared values that ensure everyone in the organization focus on the same goals and objectives (Robbins, 1996). Organization has its culture usually performs higher in the market. In a word, the key feature of building and transforming organizational ultra Is creating and maintaining shared values that seem to be the main purposes of outlining dialogue among members. Through practicing dialogue, collective communication is created, and organizational culture is transformed. These aspects include transformation of member behavior, the experiential feeling of community and people's attitudes.Firstly, in the comparison between dialogue and discussion of Gerard and Eleanor (2001), the main role of dialogue is to help people learn how to communicate with each other differently and produce collective understanding. While in discussion, people intend to keep their opinions and only the most powerful and influence d person might decide the results of the whole group, dialogue, in contrast, gives members a commitment to a common set of guidelines (Gerard and Turfs 1995). Participants try to minimize conflicts and bring all different points of view into a standard value.Therefore, the more often people practice dialogue, the more behavioral changing they have to integrate and sustain in community. Moreover, based on Bomb's research in 1996, Isaacs (1999) stated four principles of dialogue which include listening, respecting, suspending and voicing. Among these principles, listening skill plays an important role in changing behavior of a group. As a whole song could not be sensed and understood through a single note (Isaacs 1999), organizational cultures and objectives are not able to be established by a single idea.Hence, dialogue is a powerful tool to encourage people to listen thoroughly to others' ideas and engage in the conversation. Then, shared meanings, or the culture of the company is g radually transformed. Secondly, by setting up the conditions of community, dialogue transforms the feeling of the corporation culture (Gerard and Turfs 1995). When a new group starts to involve in the community, dialogue will generate an atmosphere having the ‘experiential feel' (Gerard and Turfs 1995, p. 148) of community.In an organizational scope, employees commence to sense what the company's culture would seem to be in full community based on its principles. Furthermore, for Sense (1995), dialogue is as a facilitator for team learning. He believes that team is the key feature to create shared values, and through the application of dialogue into team learning process, knowledge and feeling of the community cultures are transferred from one to others, ND individual's values as well as beliefs are positively transformed and integrated into the collective cultures.The final aspect that dialogue has the power to change the organizational culture is attitudinal transformation. As participants experience the effects of dialogue, the attitude level becomes as a ‘byproduct of the incorporation of new modes of behavior and learning the â€Å"feel† of what being in community is like' (Gerard and Turfs 1995, p. 148). Then, cooperative and collaborative attitudes start to replace the attitudes of inflexible individualism. This statement is conformable with the research f Scheme (1993) where he describes dialogue as talking around the campfire' (p. 391).During the past time, meetings were usually held around a campfire where people could simply share their opinion without any discussion or arguments. Through that, (Scheme 1993) and spend time listening to others' opinions before reflecting on their assumptions. Moreover, Isaacs (1999) also emphasized the main goal of the respecting principle of dialogue that is not to seek a decision, but to tolerate difference, gap and conflict. Therefore, the more people practice dialogue, the more hey have collect ive orientation by gradually changing their individualistic behavior, and then, the whole organizational culture is enhanced.Although dialogue has been proved to have a positive effect on organizational culture, people still face challenges in applying it into organization learning system. First, most organizations are generally a hierarchy and authorized structure which is contrary to the principles of dialogue (Boom, 1996), so employees tend to afraid of expressing their ideas or opinions to the people who are at higher level. In fact, in some top-down companies, managers have the right to create and change organizational culture as well as enforce rules and delegate duties to employees.Although it has its value, this structure might find it difficult to get dialogue going. Moreover, there are situations where people have different ideas and assumptions, and dialogue might become frustrated. If someone is not willing to listen to other's assumptions, it is considered as an act of violence (Boom, 1996) which may lead to an argument and no results could be concluded. And last but not least, in case of a cross-culture organization, dialogue becomes a more complicated and lengthy Scheme 1993) process due to the different cultural backgrounds of the employees.Then, it is necessary for companies to allocate more time and resources in designing dialogue process that may help employees communicate effectively, and the organizational culture is transformed on the right track. Despite all these challenges, dialogue still plays a significant role in transforming organizational culture if companies have methods and strategies to apply it appropriately. Sense (2006) gives a simple analysis about balancing dialogue and discussion within members of an organization. As ‘in a discussion, decisions are made.In a dialogue, complex issues are explored' (Sense 2006, p. 230), learning team must learn how to control movement back and forth between dialogue and discussion and distinguish between the ground rules and the goals to have both dialogue and constructive discussion. Communication audit is another approach to deal with the organizational practice of dialogue. For Harrier and Tourist (2004), communication audit is the key to creating a world-class communication system since the results of communicating performance among all staffs is accurately reported to the managers.This process is effective to solve problems both in top-down organization and cross-culture since it reveals communication strengths and weaknesses among employees at all levels as well as suggests solutions for improvement. In conclusion, dialogue has proved itself as an effective but challenging way of transforming organizational culture. Through behavioral, experiential and attitudinal transformation, corporation culture is positively changed as dialogue awareness of the collective assumptions, minimize arguments and by practicing dialogue, people learn how to accept the differ ences of others.

Is Democracy good for women? Essay

Democracy without women is no democracy! (Declaration †¦ of Independent Women’s Democratic Initiative 1991:127) Women have tried to change the contours of a male-defined concept of democracy and assert the struggles for democracy which have been present within women’s movements as integral to a democratic body politic. (Rowbotham 1986: 106-107) Democracy is not something which, as a matter of ill-fated fact, has failed to deliver on its promises to women. It exemplifies ideals which guarantee that it will never deliver unless it gets on upon wide critical examination of its own philosophical assumptions. In brief, the charge made against democracy is that, for women, it was never more than an article of faith, and while two hundred years of democratization have failed (and are still failing) to bring equality for women, even faith is giving out. The uncharitable might interpret these remarks as nothing more than proof of feminist paranoia and of women’s general incapability to distinguish when they are well off. It is therefore significant to stress that the charge is not simply that democratic states are, as a matter of fact, ones in which women are deprived (though they are), but rather that democratic theory is, as a matter of principle, devoted to ideals which guarantee that that will remain so. As a faith, democracy was always a false faith, and its prophets (including nearly all the main political philosophers of the past two hundred years) are now exposed as false prophets. These are staid, depressing, and even dangerous charges. The more so if we have no preferred substitute to democracy, and no revised interpretation of its central ideals. The tasks for modern feminism are therefore twofold: first, to justify the claim that traditional democratic theory leads to undemocratic practice; secondly, to recognize the ways in which that theory might be reinterpreted so as to come closer to democratic ideals. The previous is feminism’s critique of the faith; the latter is feminism’s revision of the faith. Feminist theory and practice occupies a revealing position in debates concerning the relationship between social movements and democracy. As both a social movement and an academic body of thinking. It also offers a distinguishing, if marginalized, theoretical contribution. Though feminists are not the only movement contributors to have been both objects of and subjects in academic debates, they are debatably unique in emphasizing issues of democratic barring and inclusion. This emphasis stems from the chronological experience of women’s marginalization in the polity, their subordination within fundamental movements, and the complexities that feminists have faced in their attempt to create an independent, comprehensive movement of women. From these experiences, two discrete trails of analysis have emerged. The first, feminist democratic theory focuses on the integration of women in the polity. The second, emerging from debates concerning feminist organizing, centers on the democratization of relationships within the movement itself. Both are entrenched in a critique of the masculinity limits of liberal, republican, and leftist democratic theory and practices and are entrusting to constructing liberal, inclusive, and participatory alternatives. Since Mary Wollstonecraft, generations of women and some men wove painstaking arguments to demonstrate that excluding women from modern public and political life contradicts the liberal democratic promise of universal emancipation and equality. They identified the liberation of women with expanding civil and political rights to include women on the same terms as men, and with the entrance of women into the public life dominated by men on an equal basis with them. After two centuries of faith that the ideal of equality and fraternity included women have still not brought emancipation for women, contemporary feminists have begun to question the faith itself. (Young 1987: 93) Women’s marginalization within liberal democratic institutions was simply obvious at the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth. The vote was regularly extended, at least supposedly, to all adult men decades before it was to women. Full female suffrage was not won in Great Britain, for instance, until 1928. In France it was not granted until after the Second World War and in Switzerland not until the seventies. Early feminists felt that the elimination of women from the vote and other rights and privileges liberals accorded to â€Å"mankind† was conflicting and ignorant, a hangover of pre-Enlightenment prejudice and tradition that needed only to be brought to public attention to be remedied. However, it â€Å"turned out to be the merest tip of the iceberg: a daunting hint at deeper structures that stay women politically unequal† (Phillips 1993: 103). This is not to say that women do not use their vote as often or as autonomously as men. This has been the conclusion of some non-feminist studies of female voting behavior, which have argued that women are apolitical and ready to delegate decision making to the male head of family. Consequent feminist studies have concluded that gender disparities in voting behavior are extremely context specific, stratified by social and geographic location, and expected to diminish as women gain access to education and formal employment (Randall 1987: 50-53; Conway et al. 1997: 77-80; Baxter and Lansing 1983: 17-39). though, once we move beyond the vote, the participation of women of all backgrounds in those institutions inner to the functioning of liberal democracies, from parties to lobbying groups, remains considerably less than that of comparable men, though the proportion still varies eventually and space (Randall 1987: 53-58; Conway et al. 1997: 80-128). At the utmost levels of government, the numbers of women shrink radically, with little difference between democratic and non-democratic regimes. A sweeping experiential survey of both reveals: A bleak picture of women’s contribution as national leaders, cabinet ministers, members of national legislatures and sittings in the high civil service. At the end of 1990, only 6 of the 159 countries represented in the United Nations had women as chief executives. In almost 100 countries men held all the senior and deputy ministerial positions in 1987-89. Worldwide, only 10 percent of national lawmaking seats were held by women in 1987. (Chowdhury et al. 1994:15) There are disparities in the degree of women’s participation, even at this level. Most notably, Nordic countries have long outpaced other liberal democracies in the percentage of women in their legislatures as of facilitating welfare reforms, an democratic culture, and the overture of political quotas. For instance, women made up 37. 5 percent of the legislature in Norway in 1994 (Nelson and Chowdhury 1994: 775) and 47. 4 percent of the cabinet in 1991 (Bowker-Sauer 1991: 277). Jane Jaquette has argued that there were obvious increases in indicators of women’s demonstration in many regions during the 1990s. Yet the figures she cites underline the devastating reality of continuing female marginalization: â€Å"In the United States, women now make up 11. 2 per cent of Congress†; more than double the figure of 1987, certainly, but the fact remains that men still constitute 88. 8 percent (1997: 26-27). To take another example, women gained around 20 percent of the seats in the British Parliament in the 1997 elections. This was a vivid rise, but one leaving around 80 percent of representatives male. What is more, these advances remain brittle. In the British case, they were the consequence of the victorious Labour Party having ensured that a percentage of its candidate shortlists were composed of women, a move that consequently was ruled illegal. Finally, any advances have been compensated by the sharp drop in female levels of contribution during the East Central European transitions to liberal democracy. The significant point to recognize is that Nordic uniqueness and recent incremental advances in some countries do not basically alter the stark and relatively static discrepancy between male and female levels of contribution in liberal democratic institutions wide-reaching. Women have also not been incorporated as equals into substitute visions of democracy. The previously Marxist-Leninist regimes in East Central Europe made an overt effort to establish a considerable women’s presence within their policy-making institutions, attaining an average proportion of between 25 and 35 percent. Though, this was again much lower than women’s presence in the general population and it was attainned through quotas. Though they are not essentially undemocratic in themselves, quotas meshed with male-dominated, authoritarian rule to inflict a female presence lacking in legitimacy, autonomy, and real power. Additionally, efforts to democratize relations of production continued circumscribed by the top-down imposition of decisions by the party and by ongoing gender hierarchies within the party, workplace, and home. Women were integrated in large numbers into the workers but in lower paid, lower status work. They remained burdened with domestic responsibilities, and their capability for autonomy at work and in the home was thus not efficiently increased (Jaquette 1997: 27; Janova and Sineau 1992: 119-123). Anti-colonial radical movements that arose elsewhere throughout the twentieth century, from Vietnam to Nicaragua, were apparently more popular-democratic in nature and often succeeded in mobilizing large numbers of women in a wide diversity of roles. Though, they have also shown a propensity to relapse to more traditional divisions of labor on attaining state power, excluding women from positions of authority. The record is not much better for fundamental movements that are not primarily tilting toward gaining state power. The New Left, for instance, mobilized many women and was distinguished by an egalitarian, participatory democratic ethic, but it generated mainly male spokespeople and privileged masculinist modes of behavior. It also failed to challenge the sexual objectification of women and channeled them into community-oriented activism and supportive, administrative tasks (Evans 1979: 108-155, 177-179). Similar stories of women’s subordination and the trivialization of their concerns have emerged from more recent fundamental nonstatist movements’ organizations, from the Israeli peace group â€Å"The 21st Year† (Rapoport and Sasson-Levy 1997: 8) to the ecological activists â€Å"Earth First! † (Sturgeon 1997: 49-57). A major approaching of early second-wave feminist thought was the classification of gender itself as a site and source of hierarchical power, functioning to benefit masculine traits, roles, and values over feminine comparables. This brought with it an prominence on the pervasiveness of power and a focus on its operations at the micro level of daily interactions, or what Nira Yuval-Davis calls â€Å"primary social relations† (1997a: 13). This contrasted with the focus of most modernist approaches on power in â€Å"more distant secondary social relations† (Yuval-Davis 1997a: 13), namely the state and/or economy. Early second-wave feminists explicated the causes and operations of gendered power under the rubric of patriarchy. The factual meaning of patriarchy as rule of the father, â€Å"the principle of the authority of senior males over juniors, male as well as female† (Uberoi 1995: 196), was stretched in very diverse directions. It was conceptualized by â€Å"radical† feminists as the primary and most essential form of power, exercised by all men over all women all through the world and originating in either male biological capacities and psychological disaffection or women’s susceptibility to physical attack and pregnancy. Patriarchy in this sense was understood to be retained through male aggression, the philosophy of heterosexuality, and the institutionalization of both in marriage and the family. on the contrary, feminists working within Marxist and socialist theoretical traditions concerted on the operations of patriarchy in capitalist modernity. Some argued that capitalism was essentially patriarchal, with varying stress given to the gendered division of labor, the reproductive role of women, or the purpose of the household within the economy. Others insisted that patriarchy and capitalism were distinct if inter-related systems of power, though they disagreed on the specific nature of that interrelationship. All established that neither patriarchy nor capitalism must be systematically or politically privileged, both being equally major forms of power. In addition, socialist feminists agreed that patriarchy was a property of structures that located both women and men in patterned roles within society. Most socialist and radical feminists held to the view that it was both potential and essential to abolish patriarchal and capitalist power relations and thus form a power-free world. A third strand in second-wave feminist thinking concerning gender and power drawing a division between power over as authority and control and power to as creative capacity, exercised in involvement with others rather than at their expense. The latter form of power also featured as an significant strand in republican thinking. Feminists have argued that it reflects especially feminine, relational modes of being and acting, of the kind typically exercised in close realms of life and in local communities. Such arguments have usually not been intended as a refusal of theories of patriarchal power over but do adapt them by insisting that women’s experiences are not completely negative and that their capacity for agency must be recognized alongside the constraints imposed upon it. This entails that patriarchal power has not completely prevented women from making an involvement to democracy although it has ensured that their involvement has not been fully valued. Second-wave feminist criticisms of the limited extent of most formulations of democracy focus predominantly on the dissimilarity between public and private life. Many feminists have accepted the force of Marx’s analysis of the liberal divide between public life and the private world of civil society. though, they have added that both liberalism and Marxism, and other approaches to democracy, rely on and reify a diverse public/private peculiarity, that between the domestic realm and the rest of social life (Pateman 1989: 118-140). The gendered nature of the domestic globe was openly recognized and defended in early moderate and republican work, and criticized in some Marxist and anarchist tracts, but it has since been included within the nebulous mass of civil society. Women’s continued involvement with the domestic, and the positioning of the domestic as especially private and outside of the public, has served to accept the relations of inequality between the genders that structure all dominions of life and to ensure that most women remain politically indiscernible. Whereas some second-wave feminists have formed historical and transcultural theories of this trend, others have stressed that it’s precise formulation and the consequences for women have diverse over time and place. Carole Pateman’s significant analysis of the recasting of this relationship in modernity (1989) describes a evolution from a monumental public patriarchal order, in which paternal control of the household was subordinated to a masculine hierarchy descending downwards from God and the King, to a system of private patriarchy whereby male heads of households were reconstituted as free and equal agents in the public globe through the continuation of hierarchical gender relations in the home. This meant that the state and the allegedly private civil sphere were constructed as fraternal associations of especially masculine equals. This argument is resistant by feminist critiques of the masculinist and Eurocentric character of public modes of behavior and language, such as balanced speech and impartial judgment. Feminists have argued that the supremacy of these modes is predicated on the relegation to the private sphere of bodily, affective, and illogical ways of being and those people, including women, who are considered to mark those (Young 1987). Perhaps most feminist investigations of the public/private divide in modernity, mainly those influenced by Marxism, have focused on the gendered division of labor under capitalism: the methodical allocation of accountability for â€Å"public,† paid work to men and â€Å"private,† unpaid labor to women. This is not an argument that women have been completely absent from the public economy. Total imprisonment to the home must be understood as a bourgeois ambition rather than a reality for most women. It was legitimately rejected in apparently socialist regimes and is increasingly being redundant by women of all classes in most locations. Though, women still take on the irresistible responsibility for family and domestic chores and this, joint with associated ideologies of domesticity, romance, and sexuality, channels them into marginalized, subordinated, and frequently sexualized roles in the formal economy. Precisely where the causal means in this process has been situated by feminists has depended on their precise analysis of the way patriarchy works and its relationship with capitalism. There has, conversely, been general agreement on the effects. In the West, women are intense in public welfare provision and service sectors, clerical and non-unionized manufacturing occupations, and part-time and lower paid rungs of the workforce. Women in emergent economies carry out the bulk of textile and electronics production, typically in non-unionized conditions that are often appalling. Those on the fringes of the world economy eke out a living from marginal agriculture, the informal economy, and sexual and domestic work. The dual burden of insecure and low-paid work in the formal economy and domestic chores in the private sphere operates as what feminist political scientists call a â€Å"situational constraint,† restrictive the participation of women, particularly those from certain classes, races, and locations, in public, political activities (Randall 1987: 127-129). All the above arguments focus on the gendered segregations arising from the restraints of politics to the public sphere. Feminist analysis also entails that the gendered hierarchies of the private sphere require to be recognized as political. This was the interpretation behind one of the most renowned second-wave slogans, â€Å"the personal is political. † The slogan insisted that in fact personal issues typically faced by isolated individuals behind closed doors such as whether to have sex, whether to have children, or how to systematize caring roles and responsibilities were analytically shaped by structures and relations of power that disadvantaged women relative to men. These power relations also limited women’s entree to partaking in those areas of life more characteristically understood as political and they requisite collective contestation (Randall 1987: 12-13). Effectively, this necessitated a refusal of restricted notions of politics as a characteristic activity separated out from social life, or as limited to a explicit realm or social struggle. Politics was extended to encompass the maintenance or contestation of coercive power relations wherever they were marked. This is a fundamentally agonistic formulation of politics as essentially confliction. It brought with it a liberal notion of democratic politics as the contestation of coercive power relations, and the disparities and marginalization they produce, in even the most intimate areas of life. It could be argued that this too is an agonistic formulation, one that anticipates the postmodern reconfiguration of democracy as a continuing process of conflict and contestation rather than an attainable end state. However, there is another element to the expansive feminist formulation of democracy, and that is the ambition to construct more cooperative, inclusive, and participatory relationships between individual women and the community. Certainly, second-wave feminists have had greatly different visions of possible â€Å"utopias† to which they desired and they have advocated very diverse routes to get there. Moreover, their arguments have hardly ever been articulated using the language of democracy per se. But the general point remains that much of untimely second-wave feminism sought to ease the self-determination and creative flowering of individual women and the development of more democratic and authentically consensual relationships between women and/or between women and men. This reverberates strongly with revolutionary arguments about democracy. One cause for the second-wave emphasis on participatory modes of democracy was a distress with women’s political agency and its chronological erasure. â€Å"Male stream† approaches to democracy were condemned for universalizing masculinist ideas concerning who can act in democracy and how they do and must act, in ways that function to eliminate women or marginalize their activities. One center of criticism was the liberal notion of the political subject as an asocial individual affianced in the rational pursuit of pregiven ends. Drawing on histories of the social and cultural collision of gender roles, psychoanalytic theories of gender establishment, and the experience of giving birth and living in families, feminists have argued that women hardly ever have the opportunity or the desire to live as entirely separate and discrete persons to the degree presumed by liberal ontology. Men can do so simply if they distance themselves from feminine traits and roles, relying on women to assume the major accountability for domestic labor and emotional interrelationships in the domestic spheres. The more social conceptualization of citizenship put onward by republicans, whereby individual autonomy is achieved through public consideration, has been seen as little better as it shares with liberalism the insistence that all corporal differences and particularist emotional attachments should be transcended in the public sphere. In early liberal and republican formulations, the gendered allegations of this move were made explicit. The bodily disparities of women from men and their involvement with sexuality, childbirth, and childrearing earned them a subsidiary service role in the private (Jones 1990: 790-792). Also, second-wave feminists have noted that the chronological connection between nationality and military service, predominantly evident in republican formulations, has resistant women’s internment to the private by positioning them as vulnerable and in require of protection. The fact that women finally won formal inclusion as citizens (and, somewhat, as soldiers) has not, many feminists have argued, altered the fundamental masculinist model. Women’s participation is probable to remain partial and driven with disagreements. This is supported by the findings of feminist political scientists with consider to the situational constraints faced by women with childcare responsibilities and the socialization of young girls into domestic roles and inert traits, both of which bound women’s capacity to become political actors as conservatively understood (Randall 1987: 123-126). A final area of second-wave feminist criticism has drawn consideration to the limits of strategies for change in â€Å"male stream† democratic frameworks. This is not to contradict that many feminists have established conventional strategies. Reformism has been and remains advocated by those working within laissez-faire and social democratic frameworks, who insist that women have to grab the opportunity to lobby for incremental change by exercising their vote and organizing cooperatively as an interest group to put more direct pressure on states, parties, and legislatures. The state is seen here as an unbiased arbiter of contradictory interests those women have an equal chance to shape to their purposes if they muster collectively. Their capability to do so, welfare liberal and social democratic feminists add, can be eased through economic redistribution. Such an approach has long been condemned by other feminists for its lack of radicalism, its search for compromise, and its emphasis on the activities of comparatively educated and economically privileged women. A conservatively Marxist model of revolutionary change through seizure of the state has often been pursued by more left wing feminists, often from within existing leftist organizations. The argument here is that gendered relations of power will collapse with capitalism and the liberal state, and a state proscribed in the interests of the working classes will facilitate a more substantive democracy for both women and men to expand. This view has been condemned by those who snub to subordinate feminist demands to anti-capitalist struggle. As the experience of so-called socialist states established, such subordination is probable to continue after the revolution. Gendered inequalities, though they may be considerably reconfigured, are unlikely to be determinedly overturned. Reference: †¢ Baxter, Sandra, and Marjorie Lansing. 1983. Women and Politics: The Visible Majority. Rev. ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. †¢ Bowker-Sauer. 1991. Who’s Who of Women in World Politics. London: Bowker? Sauer. †¢ Chowdhury, Najma, and Barbara J. Nelson, with Kathryn A. Carver, Nancy J. Johnson, and Paula L. O’Loughlin. 1994. â€Å"Redefining Politics: Patterns of Women’s Political Engagement from a Global Perspective. † In Barbara J. Nelson and Najma Chowdhury, eds. Women and Politics Worldwide. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. †¢ Conway, M. Margaret, Gertrude A Steuernagel, and David W. Ahern. 1997. Women and Political Participation: Cultural Change in the Political Arena. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. †¢ Declaration from the Founder Members’ Meeting of the Independent Women’s Democratic Initiative. 1991. â€Å"Democracy Without Women Is No Democracy! † Feminist Review 39: 127-132. †¢ Evans, Sara. 1979. Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left. New York: Vintage Books. †¢ Janova, Mira, and Mariette Sineau. 1992. â€Å"Women’s Participation in Political Power in Europe: An Essay in East-West Comparison. † Women’s Studies International Forum 11/1: 115-128. †¢ Jaquette, Jane S. 1997. â€Å"Women in Power: From Tokenism to Critical Mass. † Foreign Policy 108: 23-37. †¢ Nelson, Barbara J. , and Najma Chowdhury, eds. 1994. Women and Politics Worldwide. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. †¢ Pateman, Carole. 1989. The Disorder of Woman: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press. †¢ Phillips, Anne. 1993. Democracy and Difference. Cambridge: Polity Press. †¢ Randall, Vicky. 1987. Women and Politics: An International Perspective. 2d ed. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. †¢ Rapoport, Tamar, and Orna Sasson-Levy. 1997. â€Å"Men’s Knowledge, Women’s Body: A Story of Two Protest Movements. † Paper presented at the First Regional Conference on Social Movements, 8-10 September, Tel Aviv, Israel. †¢ Rowbotham, Sheila. 1986. â€Å"Feminism and Democracy. † In David Held and Christopher Pollit, eds. New Forms of Democracy. London: SAGE in association with the Open University. †¢ Sturgeon, Noel. 1997. Ecofeminist Natures: Race, Gender, Feminist Theory and Political Action. London: Routledge. †¢ Uberoi, Patricia. 1995. â€Å"Problems with Patriarchy: Conceptual Issues in Anthropology and Feminism. † Sociological Bulletin 44/2: 195-221. †¢ Young, 1987. â€Å"Impartiality and the Civic Public: Some Implications of Feminist Critiques of Moral and Political Theory. † In Seyla Benhabib and Drucilla Cornell, eds. Feminism as Critique: Essays on the Politics of Gender in Late-Capitalist Societies. Cambridge: Polity Press. †¢ Yuval-Davis, Nira. 1997a. â€Å"Women, Citizenship and Difference. † Feminist Review 57: 4-27.